Tikopia of Melanesia free essay sample

Tikopia of Melanesia Krishawn Smith Ant 101: Introduction to Cultural Anthropology Instructor Shaun Sullivan July 8, 2011 Tikopia of Melanesia is an island of people set in the Polynesia Island chain called the Solomon Islands. The Tikopian Island is at the eastern most point of the chain of islands that sets in the South Pacific, and is set high as most Polynesian Islands, because it set in the remnants of an inactive volcano. The climate is one that is tropical and the island experiences two distinct weather seasons, one characterized by hot and humid days October through March, and the other April through September displays cooler, overcast, and rainy days With a population of approximately 1,200 on the island; there are also people of Tikopia that inhibit other islands in the chain. Although Tikopia is set in Melanesia, it is linguistically and culturally a Polynesian island.As a horticultural society the Tikopian people produce their own foods by cultivating crops and generally fishing, because there are little to no animals on the island. We will write a custom essay sample on Tikopia of Melanesia or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Food in this tropical climate yielded lots of vegetation such as: yams, taro, coconut, vegetables and fruit which were yielded in great quantities. The surrounding sea is a good source of food as well; with its abundance of shellfish and fish. Fowl and pigs were raised as well.According to anthropological studies conducted by Raymond Firth, and other anthropologist during the 19th and 20th centuries the social organization, kinship, and cultural and religious beliefs are as important to the distinction of the Tikopian people as the distinction of the several islands that make up Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia and the Solomon Islands respective. Tikopias unique culture and ability to be a unadulterated culture in which no western influence was able to penetrate until well after the World War I, and was able to contain its pure influence that is contained in itself.The following is a brief overview of the structure of the Tikopian culture and the general way of life. â€Å"The Tikopians are distributed into 21 villages located along the coastline. No particular settlement pattern characterizes these villages, nor are there any village headmen. Village households are most frequently composed of a single nuclear family, but households comprising extended families or nuclear families plus other kin are also common. The village is an important unit in cooperative economic activities.The 21 villages are divided into two major social-geographical districts, named Ravenga, and Faea. Relations between villages of the same district are characterized by mutual interest and cooperation for the most part. In contrast, relations between villages of different districts are marked by rivalry and hostility. Village and district distinctions are cross-cut by a system of four principal kin groups, which Firth (1936, 1959) calls patrilineal clans. The clans are further segmented into patrilineages. Clans are not localized; each has members in both districts and in many or most of the villages. But nearly every village has a preponderance of households of one clan, which is the politically and ritually dominant group in that village. Integrated with this system of kin and local groups is a strongly developed status system, which, when expressed in a political form, constitutes a rank structure with chiefs at its apex. Patrilineages are headed by chiefs (maru), who are usually the most senior men in the direct lines of descent from the lineage ancestors.Lineage heads have important political, ritual, and economic functions, but more important are the clan chiefs (ariki). Succession to these offices is determined by primogeniture and direct descent from the common clan ancestor. Clan chiefs are the traditional political and ritual leaders of the clan; they theoretically own all the land, are key figures in production and distribution, and major agents of social control. Each chief has two sets of advisors, one for each ritual and secular affairs.As a result of missionary activities, the Tikopians have become Christianized, and ritual advisors are no longer important. Although the clans are hierarchically ranked, the chief of the highest ranked clan should be considered as first among equals, rather than as a true paramount chief. Tikopian marriages are prohibited among relatives of the first degree of relationship according to their classificatory kin reckoning. Neither lineages nor clans function as exogamous units.People are divided into two classes, the chiefly class and the commoner class, according to lines of descent. Until recently, there was a preference for intra-class marriages, although this was not rigorously enforced. Polygyny is practiced, but monogamy is the prevalent form of marriage. Despite occasional separations of married couples, the Tikopians have no formal mechanisms for divorce. Delayed age of marriage for males, infanticide, and abortion are among the Tikopian practices that have traditionally functioned to control their population. The aboriginal Tikopian religious system was oriented around rituals for various ancestors and gods, with the aim of obtaining such ends as favorable weather, crop productivity, success in fishing, and the curing of illness. The most important mediators between the Tikopians and the supernaturals were the clan chiefs, or ariki. An ariki was thought to derive his religious powers (manu) from the gods, and he served as a priest in important rituals involving joint participation of the Tikopian clans as well as the ritual for his own clan. In addition, each lineage in a clan had a ritual elder (matapure or pure matua), appointed by the ariki, who dealt with lineage ritual (Firth 1970). Because of its remote and isolated location, Tikopia had few contacts with outside groups until well into the twentieth century. Tikopians occasionally visited other islands, but these trips were limited by the large distances and great hazards involved in canoe ocean voyages. Contacts by Westerners bega n sporadically around the beginning of the nineteenth century, but in 1927, when Firth did his initial fieldwork in Tikopia, the indigenous culture was largely intact. The major contact agents were, first, missionaries and, later, labor recruiters. By the 1950s, all the Tikopians had become Christianized, and most of the native ritual practices had ceased. Much of the Tikopian life style has remained intact, but the forces of Westernization have been making inroads throughout the twentieth century. Raymond Firth is the major authority on Tikopian ethnography, having spent 12 months in 1928-29, ca. 5 months in 1952 and a short time in 1966 on the island.The only study of Tikopia previous to Firths was made in 1910 by the Reverend W. J. Durrad, based on a stay of 2 months. † Tikopias natural ability to be a self contained, self governed island culture that has been able to avoid the homogenization of Western influence until recent time shows that the subsistence in agriculture and the ability to control population , and patrilineal kinship lineages are cultural tradition that allow them to be one of the oldest civilization known to existence. References:

Free Essays on Stress A Fine Line

Stress: A very fine line We are all familiar with the word â€Å"stress†, but there are many myths about it. Some people believe it means an individual is weak and unable to handle things properly. Others think it is an illness. Moreover, stress is an adaptive response. It is the body’s reaction to an event that is perceived as emotionally disturbing, disquieting, or threatening. When we perceive such an event, we experience what a stress researcher has called â€Å"fight or flight† response (Farrintong). To prepare for fighting or fleeing, the body increases its heart rate and blood pressure; more blood is pumped out to your heart and muscles and your respiration rate increases. Prolonged stress can cause many disorders, from minor to life threatening. Therefore, stress is divided in to two categories: acute and chronic. Acute stress generally is not very harmful, as long as it does not happen too often and your body has a chance to return to normal. However, it can trigger an abnormal heartbeat and even a heart attack in those with heart disease. Researchers have found that stress activates the body’s hormone system, provoking headaches, sleep deprivation and weight loss. Tension may be the first recognizable symptom of stress and is an early sign that the body might not be recovering from acute stress. Muscles are tense, tight and feel "hard" to the touch. A tense mind makes you feel jumpy, irritable, and unable to concentrate. This could be a signal to do something about s tress, both for immediate comfort and to prevent the long-term effects of stress. Furthermore, chronic stress can be the result of many instances of acute stress. In people with higher levels of chronic stress, the stress response is longer, contributing to their physical stress. Over time, chronic stress affects the nervous system and the immune system. The body becomes more vulnerable to many illnesses, from colds and minor infections to major diseases such ... Free Essays on Stress A Fine Line Free Essays on Stress A Fine Line Stress: A very fine line We are all familiar with the word â€Å"stress†, but there are many myths about it. Some people believe it means an individual is weak and unable to handle things properly. Others think it is an illness. Moreover, stress is an adaptive response. It is the body’s reaction to an event that is perceived as emotionally disturbing, disquieting, or threatening. When we perceive such an event, we experience what a stress researcher has called â€Å"fight or flight† response (Farrintong). To prepare for fighting or fleeing, the body increases its heart rate and blood pressure; more blood is pumped out to your heart and muscles and your respiration rate increases. Prolonged stress can cause many disorders, from minor to life threatening. Therefore, stress is divided in to two categories: acute and chronic. Acute stress generally is not very harmful, as long as it does not happen too often and your body has a chance to return to normal. However, it can trigger an abnormal heartbeat and even a heart attack in those with heart disease. Researchers have found that stress activates the body’s hormone system, provoking headaches, sleep deprivation and weight loss. Tension may be the first recognizable symptom of stress and is an early sign that the body might not be recovering from acute stress. Muscles are tense, tight and feel "hard" to the touch. A tense mind makes you feel jumpy, irritable, and unable to concentrate. This could be a signal to do something about s tress, both for immediate comfort and to prevent the long-term effects of stress. Furthermore, chronic stress can be the result of many instances of acute stress. In people with higher levels of chronic stress, the stress response is longer, contributing to their physical stress. Over time, chronic stress affects the nervous system and the immune system. The body becomes more vulnerable to many illnesses, from colds and minor infections to major diseases such ...

Indian Castes and Feudal Japanese Classes (Comparison)

Indian Castes and Feudal Japanese Classes (Comparison) Although they arose from very different sources, the Indian caste system and the feudal Japanese class system have many features in common. Yet the two social systems are dissimilar in important ways, as well. Are they more alike, or more different? The Essentials Both the Indian caste system and the Japanese feudal class system have four main categories of people, with others falling below the system entirely. In the Indian system, the four primary castes are: Brahmins:  Hindu priestsKshatriyas:  the kings and warriorsVaisyas:  farmers, traders, and skilled artisans  Shudras  tenant farmers and servants. Below the caste system there were the untouchables, who were considered so impure that they could contaminate people from the four castes just by touching them or even being too close to them. They did unclean jobs such as scavenging animal carcasses, tanning leather, etc. The untouchables are also known as dalits or harijans. Under the feudal Japanese system, the four classes are: Samurai, the warriors​FarmersArtisansMerchants. As with Indias untouchables, some Japanese people fell below the four-tier system. These were the burakumin and hinin. The burakumin served essentially the same purpose as untouchables in India; they did butchering, leather tanning, and other unclean jobs, but also prepared human burials. The hinin were actors, wandering musicians, and convicted criminals. Origins of the Two Systems Indias caste system arose out of the Hindu belief in reincarnation. A souls behavior in its previous life determined the status it would have in its next life. Castes were hereditary and fairly inflexible; the only way to escape a low caste was to be very virtuous in this life, and hope to be reborn in a higher station the next time. Japans four-tier social system came out of Confucian philosophy, rather than religion. According to Confucian principles, everyone in a well-ordered society knew their place  and paid respect to those stationed above them. Men were higher than women; elders were higher than young people. Farmers ranked just after the ruling samurai class  because they produced the food that everyone else depended upon. Thus, though the two systems seem quite similar, the beliefs from which they arose were rather different. Differences between Indian Castes and Japanese Classes In the feudal Japanese social system, the shogun and the imperial family were above the class system. Nobody was above the Indian caste system, though. In fact, kings and warriors were lumped together in the second caste - the Kshatriyas. Indias four castes were actually sub-divided into literally thousands of sub-castes, each with a very specific job description. The Japanese classes were not divided in this way, perhaps because Japans population was smaller and much less ethnically and religiously diverse. In Japans class system, Buddhist monks and nuns were outside of the social structure. They were not considered lowly or unclean, just detached from the social ladder. In the Indian caste system, in contrast, the Hindu priestly class were the highest caste - the Brahmins. According to Confucius, farmers were far more important than merchants, because they produced food for everyone in society. Merchants, on the other hand, did not make anything - they simply profited off of trade in other peoples products. Thus, farmers were in the second tier of Japans four-tier system, while merchants were at the bottom. In the Indian caste system, however, merchants and land-holding farmers were lumped together in the Vaisya caste, which was the third of the four varnas or primary castes. Similarities between the Two Systems In both the Japanese and Indian social structures, the warriors and rulers were one and the same. Obviously, both systems had four primary categories of people, and these categories determined the sort of work that people did. Both the Indian caste system and Japanese feudal social structure had unclean people who were below the lowest rung on the social ladder. In both cases, though their descendants have much brighter prospects today, there continues to be discrimination against people who are perceived as belonging to these outcast groups. Japanese samurai and Indian Brahmins were both considered to be well above the next group down. In other words, the space between the first and second rungs on the social ladder was much wider than that between the second and third rungs. Finally, both the Indian caste system and Japans four-tiered social structure served the same purpose: they imposed order and controlled the social interactions among people in two complex societies. The Two Social Systems Tier Japan India Above the System Emperor, Shogun Nobody 1 Samurai Warriors Brahmin Priests 2 Farmers Kings, Warriors 3 Artisans Merchants, Farmers, Artisans 4 Merchants Servants, Tenant Farmers Below the System Burakumin, Hinin Untouchables

Approach to managing people including flexible working arrangements Essay

Approach to managing people including flexible working arrangements and workplace diversity policies - Essay Example Flexible time can be defined as an alternative work schedule to the traditional 9 to 5 in which the employees are able to set their own schedules (Dol). The use of flexible time is viable at companies that have a work week that goes beyond 9 to 5 such as firms with double and triple shifts. The implementation of a flexible time program can be beneficial to both employees and employers. One of the greatest benefits of flexible time for the employees is that it allows them to have a better work life balance. For instance single parents can arrange their schedule so that they are free a few hours in the afternoon to go pick up their kids at school. Four additional benefits of flexible time are a reduction in the employee commuting time and fuel costs, avoidance of traffic rush and stress associated with rush hour, reduction in employee burnout due to overload, and increase in personal control over work scheduling (Heathfield, 2013). Corporations benefit from the implementation of flexib le time due to higher employee productivity. Employees that use flexible time also tend to have lower absenteeism and higher retention rate than employees working a traditional 9 to 5 week. The human resource department must closely monitor the flexible time arrangement of each employee to ensure they are complying with their 40 hours of labor each week. Companies today must manage diversity in the workplace. â€Å"Workforce diversity involves differences based on gender, race, and ethnicity, age, able-bodiedness and sexual orientation† (Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, 2003, pg.5). Success in the workplace occurs when the employees are able to set their differences aside and work towards a common goal. Organizations must institute diversity policies. The diversity policy must include harsh penalties for employees that discriminate against other workers due to diversity issues. Diversity should be visualized

Business proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Business proposal - Assignment Example The company records low unit sales and lags behind Volkswagen AG and BMW in China. The stiff competition has to overall underperformance in China. The aim of this proposal is to look at the challenge facing the company and how they can be solved. It targets prospective investors and luxury automobile dealers who are willing to explore business opportunities in order to meet their goals. The audience needs to be concerned because any threat to the downfall of the Mercedes-Benz will affect them. Because the Mercedes-Benz defines class, prestige and luxury, its fall in the market will translate to lose of status and class and profit to the targeted audience. In order to Increase Unit sales and beat the stiff competition, Mercedes-Benz should first carry out research on consumer tastes and preferences to establish their needs. The findings will lead to the second solution of investing on new models. Adjusting its organization structure to be more flexible is yet another solution to the p roblem. A flexible structure ought to be established because it supports quick decision making and newer models will lead to increased market share hence beating the competition. The proposal also gives a solution of developing a cohesive strategy of targeting areas that highly populated with high class persons. Such audience have the capacity of buying the Mercedes-Benz which is likely to boost its sales. Despite having achieved high record sales of 1.46 million cars globally last year, the Daimler’s Mercedes-Benz car faces a lot of stiff competition from the Germany rivals and small cars who are still leading in terms of profitability, unit sales and appeal especially to the younger generation (Acquisdata snapshot 50). The major root of the challenge facing the Mercedes-Benz stems from the China market where it records under-performance. The China market is a vital market to pay attention to because it of its high

Why Might Freudian Therapy be a Waste of Time and Money Essay -- Psych

In his book Des Bienfaits de la Depression, Pierre Fà ©dida wrote a chapter called 'Il Faut Etre Deux Pour Guà ©rir' in which he explains why it is useful to talk when you are depressed.20 Patients usually believe that talking is not the solution but that the only way to cure is to bring back the lost person/situation whose absence initially caused the trauma. Psychological pain is a human particularity and therapy is meant to heal it. Fà ©dida uses the example of drug addicts who go on detoxification. Addiction to drugs often reveals an alarming state of depression and the fact of undergoing treatment for drug addiction is the sign of distress and will to be saved. Freud used to underline how human beings have created for themselves an interior metaphorical discourse to express extremely violent issues such as love, hate, life, death, sexuality...21 Analytical cure sight-reads this metaphorical language. Patients have the tendency to try and cure themselves alone but therapy helps substract the patient to his own influence, free his from his own desease. Therapy requires the participation of two actors and recovery cannot take place if the therapist does not understand his patient's psychology and resistance to healing.22 Freud focused on studying the opposition to healing and resistance to treatment when increasing his knowledge about unconscious forces. The therapist defines healing as the goal creating the patient's resistances. Thoses resistances to therapy can be explained as follows : the fact of being cured corresponds to a change of state. Negative reactions to treatment are thus explained by a fear of losing internal integrity and eventually disintegrating. The fear of modification is extremely strong. In 1904, Freud... ...Jacob : 2001) FREUD, SIGMUND, An Outline of Psychoanalysis, (W.W. Norton & Company : New York – London), Standard Edition, 1949, vol. 23 MIJOLLA de, Alain, Dictionnaire International de la Psychanalyse, (Hachette Littà ©ratures : 2005) ARTICLES CASEMENT, Patrick, 'Beyond words – the role of psychoanalysis', The Psychologist, 2009, vol. 22, 5th May LEVY, R. & ABLON, J., 'Talk therapy: Off the couch and into the lab', 2010 WAN, William, 'Freud coming into fashion in China, Treating China's syndromes', Washington Post, October 11th 2010 WEBSITES ETHAN, 'Psychoanalysis: From Theory to Practice, Past to Present', Northwestern University http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/plaut.html http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch13_therapies/psychoanalysis.html http://www.apsa.org/About_Psychoanalysis/Low-Fee_Clinics.aspx http://www.npap.org/intro/faqs.html Why Might Freudian Therapy be a Waste of Time and Money Essay -- Psych In his book Des Bienfaits de la Depression, Pierre Fà ©dida wrote a chapter called 'Il Faut Etre Deux Pour Guà ©rir' in which he explains why it is useful to talk when you are depressed.20 Patients usually believe that talking is not the solution but that the only way to cure is to bring back the lost person/situation whose absence initially caused the trauma. Psychological pain is a human particularity and therapy is meant to heal it. Fà ©dida uses the example of drug addicts who go on detoxification. Addiction to drugs often reveals an alarming state of depression and the fact of undergoing treatment for drug addiction is the sign of distress and will to be saved. Freud used to underline how human beings have created for themselves an interior metaphorical discourse to express extremely violent issues such as love, hate, life, death, sexuality...21 Analytical cure sight-reads this metaphorical language. Patients have the tendency to try and cure themselves alone but therapy helps substract the patient to his own influence, free his from his own desease. Therapy requires the participation of two actors and recovery cannot take place if the therapist does not understand his patient's psychology and resistance to healing.22 Freud focused on studying the opposition to healing and resistance to treatment when increasing his knowledge about unconscious forces. The therapist defines healing as the goal creating the patient's resistances. Thoses resistances to therapy can be explained as follows : the fact of being cured corresponds to a change of state. Negative reactions to treatment are thus explained by a fear of losing internal integrity and eventually disintegrating. The fear of modification is extremely strong. In 1904, Freud... ...Jacob : 2001) FREUD, SIGMUND, An Outline of Psychoanalysis, (W.W. Norton & Company : New York – London), Standard Edition, 1949, vol. 23 MIJOLLA de, Alain, Dictionnaire International de la Psychanalyse, (Hachette Littà ©ratures : 2005) ARTICLES CASEMENT, Patrick, 'Beyond words – the role of psychoanalysis', The Psychologist, 2009, vol. 22, 5th May LEVY, R. & ABLON, J., 'Talk therapy: Off the couch and into the lab', 2010 WAN, William, 'Freud coming into fashion in China, Treating China's syndromes', Washington Post, October 11th 2010 WEBSITES ETHAN, 'Psychoanalysis: From Theory to Practice, Past to Present', Northwestern University http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/plaut.html http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch13_therapies/psychoanalysis.html http://www.apsa.org/About_Psychoanalysis/Low-Fee_Clinics.aspx http://www.npap.org/intro/faqs.html

Developing and applying theories in a pluralistic society – The Person Centred Method

For this assignment I will be considering Carl Roger's person centred method and it's application to lesbian women in a pluralist society, I will be drawing upon the theoretical frame work previously used in my presentation. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was the founder of the person centred method his theories are associated with the Humanistic psychology it is also associated with Maslow(1908-1970) and phenomenological approach. Phenomenology is a philosophical assessment of the individual it was developed by Husserl (1975), the focus is on the subjective experience. The method involved requires the professional to suspend their assumption and interpretation of the client's world, thereby allowing the client to interpret and explore their own experiences and thoughts. It is important to consider the context in which psychological theories conceptualised and developed. Humanistic psychology developed in the industrial age and in the 50's and 60's it therefore places great importance on the individual as a person striving for independence, self actualisation and their maximum potential. Dryden et al (1989) have also given an outline of the origins of the humanistic theory, that these were in the affluent era of the 50's and 60's in California, terms such as self actualisation, can be just a ‘slogan' that is applied without any real meaning, when contrasted between the prosperous, optimistic society of California, it can have a different meaning for those people that are in poverty are unemployed or homeless. The concept of self actualisation which is considered necessary by psychologists such as Rogers can be explored in relation to lesbian women and how society conceptualises them. Homosexuality has been viewed by psychotherapists and psychiatrists as a mental illness, and was considered as such until 1974 when the American Psychiatric Association declassified it, however there was considerable opposition to this from psychotherapists, psychoanalysts, and ‘medical model' psychiatrists ( Mcleod J, 1998), in-fact psychotherapy was used to try to ‘cure' homosexuality. Although the work of Rogers' has encouraged progress and has been associated with movement away from the previous medical model of mental illness, one the draw backs of Rogerian person centred therapy out lined by Ivey et al (1997) is that it is a ‘highly verbal' technique, which is over-concerned with the deeper meaning of life rather than tackling problems and finding solutions. Therefore it may not be suited to all clients especially those with mental health problems etc. Roger's therapy known as ‘person centred' and non-directive aimed to change the balance of power towards that of the client, and to treat the individual as a ‘client' rather than a patient. However this point can be debated as to whether the balance of power is actually shifted and the control is with the recipient, rather than the provider of the therapy. Criticism of therapies, such as Rogerian, psychodynamic and cognitive behavioural according to Ivey et al (1997) is that they place responsibility for the problem with the client rather than considering structural, political and environmental issues that are relevant to the clients experience. The person centred method in relation to lesbian women needs to be applied in a way that is sensitive to them, therefore if the counsellor is male he will need to be aware that he does not impose his own assumptions and interpretation onto the client, firstly about his ideas about women's roles within society and as nurturers, wives and mothers, secondly stereotypical perceptions about lesbianism. Feminists criticise models of the helping relationship which have their origins in the white middle class male ideology, they relate this to the way a patriarchal society oppresses women into submissive roles, Banks (1999) also questions whether male therapists can validate a female clients experiences in a male dominated society. Hetro-sexual women can also oppress lesbians through negative assumptions and homophobia that can lead to imposing our own values and assumptions about lesbian relationships, McLeod (1998) gives a good example where a female therapist tried to actively encourage her lesbian client to date men. The person centred approach places particular emphasis on the use of the core conditions, genuiness, unconditional positive regard and empathy, and its view of human nature is positive and optimistic in comparison to Freudian psychology. The core conditions out lined by Rogers plays an essential part in building a therapeutic relationship, between the therapist and the client. From my professional experience when working as education social worker relating to a teenage pregnancy, the girl was fifteen years old and Asian. I was surprised when she said that she thought she was a lesbian, however working with the young person and applying Rogers core conditions, of genuiness, empathy and unconditional positive regard, enabled me to realize that people need to discover their sexuality and who the real person is; society can place pressure on young people to conform to the norms of a white, heterosexual society and thereby place conditions of worth on them. Unconditional positive regard which is accepting the clients experiences without judgment is essential in building a therapeutic relationship, however if the counsellor has absorbed negative, homophobic assumptions about homosexuality, from the society that he/she lives in then these may consciously or unconsciously be transferred on to the client. Humanistic psychotherapist Don Clark (1987) has expressed that therapeutic neutrality is impossible to maintain, since we have taken on board society's negative stereotypes of homosexuality, he has stated that â€Å"it is presumptuous to assume that counsellors who have been taught about valuable concepts such as unconditional positive regard are able to apply them with gay-lesbian clients if they are not aware of their own heterosexual or homophobia biases† (Davies and Neal,1996) A lesbian women may for example find it difficult to come to terms with her own sexuality, because of negative stereotypes and stigma associated with it, â€Å"Lesbian women are raised to view themselves as a half person without a man, they may see marriage as a door to personal growth, adult hood, freedom, and motherhood†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. ( Davies and Neal,1996) the counsellor may therefore need to enable the lesbian woman to restore her self esteem and her concept of being a woman, the traditional female roles, as mother and wife may not be stereotypes that she aspires to. The impact of Homophobia on the self concept of a lesbian woman will create conditions of worth, therefore lesbians may feel they are not worthy individuals if they are not heterosexual, do not have children, have a male partner and behave as society expects women to do. Bradshaw (1998) has defined the concept of ‘Toxic shame' in relation to internalised homophobia within the self-concept. This notion cannot be fully understood without the use of a more eclectic approach to counselling because it states that the self concept can become, fragile and a false self concept can develop, through denial, this may be conscious or unconscious but it will be due to the fear of discovery. Toxic shame can lead to the development of defences which can lead to alcohol, substance abuse, suicide attempts, distancing oneself from others, underachievement or over-achievement etc. Being functional or dysfunctional human being is particularly relevant to how lesbian women's identity and self concept develops, becoming functional human being requires being able to use ones own organismic valuing process, which maximises the potential to grow and become the true self. The dysfunctional human being lives to meet the values of others to acquire love and respect. Coming out as a lesbian therefore is fraught with anxiety and even danger of rejection by family, friends and community. The primary question is will they be valued by society if they come out as Lesbian? The organismic need to come out and be accepted as a lesbian should be facilitated by the therapist to enable the client to accept their real identity; however the client should be ready to do this in her own time. Therefore acceptance from the therapist or social worker or other professional is an essential first step. However therapists as well as other professionals such as social workers can easily oppress lesbian women, an example from my practice experience when working with the Education Welfare service in a case where the child was not attending school regularly, during the home visit the client revealed that her relationship with her husband had broken down and that she had started a lesbian relationship, this immediately led me to make the assumption that the child's non-attendance may be related to this new relationship. On reflection I noticed how easy it was to jump to a conclusion relating to same sex relationships and would I have made the same assumption if the relationship was with a partner of the opposite sex? Drawing from my own experience I notice how easily professionals from helping organisations can make assumptions that can lead to discrimination and oppression, when working in a refuge for vulnerable women that had been the victims of domestic violence, a Black woman with four children came to the centre it was assumed automatically by the member of staff taking down her history that the abusive partner was male. The woman found that she had to explain that she was in a lesbian relationship, and the abusive partner was another woman. This is a good example where social assumptions and stereotypes where women are perceived to be submissive, passive individuals that are the victims of domestic violence rather than the perpetrators of it. It also shows that assumptions are made by professionals regarding relationships that a partner automatically means someone of the opposite sex. The person centred method when applied to lesbians need to take into account the experience of the individual as a woman and also as lesbian her experience needs to be valued and respected, this method if used effectively according to Rogers, can build up the self -worth and self acceptance. However Davies and Neal (1996) state that few British training courses in counselling or psychotherapy cover working with lesbian, gay and bi-sexual people. They propose a model of gay affirmative therapy; this should be incorporated into other theoretical methods such as humanistic and psychodynamic etc. â€Å"Gay affirmative therapy is not an independent system of psychotherapy. Rather it represents a special range of psychological knowledge which challenges the traditional views†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Davies and Neal (1996) Gay affirmative therapy is an eclectic model that incorporates both theories. 2 important factors pointed out by Davies and Neal is firstly whether the counsellor is competent to counsel the homosexual individual, and secondly that it is important for the counsellor to examine their own ‘ideas about values, moral and lifestyles when working with clients who are culturally different'. This is the important factor of genuiness or congruence that Rogers has defined, Kus (1990), states that a therapist should be open and honest about personal prejudices that they hold about homosexuality, and refer clients on, however congruence can be much more difficult in practice, if the therapist or the client with holds information from each other in the relationship. Empathy is also an important core condition that was noted by Rogers with in the person centred approach, it is a deep understanding of the clients personal perspective of their problems, however it can be argued whether a heterosexual person can fully understand what it feels like to be a lesbian, similarly can a white person fully understand what it feels like to be black? This question exposes the difficulty of cross-cultural counselling, especially if the counsellor or therapist is unaware of the their own prejudice for e.g. non-verbal behaviour, body language or are ignorant about the issues for lesbian women. However it is important for professionals such as therapists not to assume that all lesbians need counselling for coming to terms with their sexuality, counselling may be required for a wide range of other issues as with hetero sexual women. R.J, Kus (1990) states that one of the most frequent criticism concerning helping professionals is that they get ‘fixated' upon the homosexual life style and lose sight of the issues the help is being sought for, this means that the therapist assumes that the life style is the problem, despite the client stating other issues that help is sought for. The Humanistic perspective has contributed to social work practice by providing valuable criteria working in anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory way with service users, the most useful contribution is the person centred approach, which facilitates building of genuine helping relationship and listening to the service user. It also acknowledges that the client is expert on his/her particular problems. The person centred method has many positive aspects that can be used by social workers and other helping professionals, and aspects of this model can be incorporated with other theories to provide an eclectic model that can be used effectively by them. For example the humanistic person centred method is a valuable tool to build warm, respecting and trusting relationship with clients such as lesbian women, it will facilitate understanding their present situation, and how they view them selves within society and explore their organismic needs. Aspects of the psychodynamic approach may be useful in the enabling the client to explore their unconscious feelings and motives, whilst multicultural perspectives, acknowledge the cultural background and identity of the individual. I think that for anti-discriminatory social work practice that can empower the individual an eclectic model may be the most useful approach in a helping relationship.